Table 3 Recommendations resulting from each finding

Don’t dismiss it

Listen and respond to the impact of partners’ behaviours on women and avoid making assumptions about the severity of the behaviour(s). Be aware of and challenge cultural stereotypes that minimise IPSV, such as (1) women should be sexually available to their partner, (2) women should enjoy all sex with their partner, and (3) women cannot be raped or sexually assaulted by a partner

See the bigger picture

Focus on the pattern of behaviours, not on individual incidents. Understand that co-occurring psychological abuse may exacerbate shame and prevent women from articulating the source of their distress. Acknowledge that relationships between IPSV and psychological abuse are complex; psychological abuse can facilitate IPSV and IPSV can also be part of a broader pattern of fear and coercive control

Counteract the gaslighting

Actively challenge cultural stereotypes that minimise and excuse IPSV. Name all forms of IPSV as violence and abuse irrespective of whether it co-occurs with physical violence; educate women about the continuum of IPSV behaviours; acknowledge intersections between psychological abuse and IPSV and how these may disrupt consent and compound shame. Universal education about healthy relationships and enthusiastic consent may empower women with information and language they need to identify IPSV and seek support