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Table 2 Socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of both premenopausal and postmenopausal women (n = 784) according to serum 25 (OH) D concentrations (ng/ml) in Karachi, Pakistan

From: Frequency and determinants of vitamin D deficiency among premenopausal and postmenopausal women in Karachi Pakistan

Variables

Vitamin D ≥ 20

Vitamin D deficiency < 20

Crude OR (95% CI)

Adjusted OR (95% CI)

Age groups

n (%)

n (%)

  

 < 35

29 (10.9)

65 (18.7)

3.46 (2.00, 5.97)

3.11 (1.76, 5.51)

 35–45

77 (28.9)

144 (41.4)

2.88 (1.88, 4.43)

2.66 (1.69, 4.19)

 46–54

69 (25.9)

80 (23.0)

1.79 (1.13, 2.83)

1.72 (1.07, 2.77)

 55 and above

91 (34.2)

59 (17.0)

Ref

Ref

Education

    

 < Grade8

49 (18.4)

68 (19.5)

1.07 (0.69, 1.65)

 

 Grades 8–12

87 (32.7)

111(31.9)

0.98 (0.68, 1.41)

 

 > Grade12

130 (48.9)

169 (48.6)

Ref

 

Socioeconomic status

    

 Lower

61 (22.9)

52 (14.9)

2.62 (1.58, 4.34)

2.0 (1.15, 3.48)

 Middle

158 (59.4)

191 (54.9)

1.42 (0.92, 2.17)

1.23 (0.77, 1.95)

 Upper

47 (17.7)

105 (30.2)

Ref

Ref

Parity*

    

 Nullipara

34 (12.8)

59 (17.0)

0.82 (0.50, 1.350

 

1 –3

136 (51.1)

152 (43.7)

0.64 (0.40, 1.04)

 

 > 3

96 (36.1)

137 (39.4)

Ref

 

Menopausal status

    

 Postmenopausal

152 (58.0)

146 (43.0)

1.90 (1.38, 2.63)

 

 Premenopausal

110 (42.0)

201 (57.0)

Ref

 

History of any comorbid

    

 Yes

161 (60.5)

168 (48.3)

0.61 (0.44, 0.84)

 

 No

105 (39.5)

180 (51.7)

Ref

 

Season vitamin D

    

 Winter

102 (39.2)

167 (48.7)

1.47 (1.06, 2.04)

 

 Summer

158 (60.8)

176 (51.3)

Ref

 

Body mass indexa

    

 Normal

70 (27.9)

80 (25.1)

Ref

 

 Over weight

108 (43.0)

130 (40.8)

1.05 (0.69, 1.58)

 

 Obese

73 (29.1)

109 (34.2)

1.31(0.85, 2.02)

 

Fish consumption

    

 No intake

107 (41.2)

136 (40.1)

1.14 (0.56, 2.29)

 

 < Than once a month

136 (52.3)

184 (54.3)

1.21 (0.61, 2.42)

 

 > Once/month

17 (6.5)

19 (5.6)

Ref

 

Vitamin D supplements intake

    

 Yes

204 (76.7)

172 (49.4)

0.30 (0.19, 0.46)

0.59 (0.38, 0.92)

 No

62 (23.3)

176 (50.6)

Ref

Ref

  1. OR odds ratio; CI confidence interval
  2. Parity* was restricted to women who ever had a full-term pregnancy (a pregnancy was considered as full-term if it resulted in a live birth or lasted 7 or more months)
  3. aBMI body mass index; BMI was categorized according to the WHO classification for Asian as normal weight (< 18.5–24.9 kg/m2), overweight (25.0–29.9 kg/m2) or obese (> 30 kg/m2)
  4. Reference: OR are compared to those women who had VDD. Adjusted for education, BMI, parity, skin tone, sunlight exposure, attire outside. Reference: OR are compared to those women who had no vitamin D deficiency