Table 2 Demographic, social and behavioral determinants of vitamin D status in healthy adult females (n = 215)

Age

15–30 years

90/134 (67 %)

Ref

-

Ref

-

31–45 years

66/81 (81 %)

2.15 (1.10–4.18)

0.02

1.63 (0.74–3.58)

0.22

Settings

University students

60/92 (65 %)

1.7 (0.83–3.44)

0.14

Religious institutes

45/56 (80 %)

0.78 (0.32–1.92)

0.60

Employed

51/67 (76 %)

Ref

-

Month of recruitment

January-March^a

85/104 (81 %)

2.51 (1.34–4.73)

0.004

2.38 (1.20–4.70)

0.01

April-July^b

71/111 (64 %)

Ref

-

Ref

-

Marital status

Single

53/84 (63 %)

Ref

-

Ref

-

Married

103/131 (78 %)

2.15 (1.17–3.95)

0.01

1.49 (0.72–3.09)

0.27

Education

Illiterate

24/27 (89 %)

4.12 (1.15–14.71)

0.03

4.0 (1.03–15.52)

0.04

5–10 years

68/91 (75 %)

2.70 (0.74–9.8)

0.13

2.71 (0.68–10.72)

0.15

11–16 years

64/97 (66 %)

Ref

-

Ref

-

Income

Lower income

54/77 (70 %)

1.02 (0.47–2.21)

0.95

Intermediate income

66/87 (76 %)

0.70 (0.35–1.66)

0.56

Higher income

36/51 (70 %)

Ref

-

Preferred food item

Homemade food

84/108 (78 %)

Ref

-

Ref

-

Junk food

72/107 (67 %)

1.70 (0.92–13.12)

0.08

1.31 (0.67–2.57)

0.42

Body exposure

Full body covered/veil

70/114 (61 %)

1.60 (0.93–2.75)

0.31

Some parts exposed

86/101 (85 %)

Ref

-

Sun exposure time/day

≤30 min

89/116 (77 %)

2.09 (1.14–43.85)

0.01

2.13 (1.08–4.19)

0.02

>30 min

67/99 (68 %)

Ref

-

Ref

Milk intake

Yes

61/92 (66 %)

Ref

-

Ref

-

No

95/123 (77 %)

1.72 (0.94–3.15)

0.07

1.46 (0.74–2.88)

0.26

Province/place of origin

Punjabi

109/150 (73 %)

Ref

-

Others^c

47/65 (72 %)

1.01 (0.53–1.95)

0.95

BMI

<25 kg/m²

87/126 (69 %)

Ref

-

≥25 kg/m²

69/89 (77 %)

1.54 (0.82–2.8)

0.17

Use of a multivitamin supplement

Yes

32/78 (41 %)

Ref

-

Ref

-

No

124/137 (90 %)

2.56 (1.38–4.74)

0.002

2.61 (1.32–5.16)

0.005