Characteristics | PDHS (1990–1991) | PDHS (2006–2007) | PDHS (2012–2013) | PDHS (2017–2018) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n = 4061 | n = 5677 | n = 7446 | n = 6711 | |||||||||
AOR | 95% CI | p-value | AOR | 95% CI | p-value | AOR | 95% CI | p-value | AOR | 95% CI | p-value | |
Sociodemographic characteristics and co-variates | ||||||||||||
Regions/Provinces | ||||||||||||
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
Punjab | 1.88 | 1.53–2.30 | < 0.01 | 1.92 | 1.62–2.28 | < 0.01 | 1.64 | 1.39–1.92 | < 0.01 | 1.19 | 1.00–1.42 | 0.04 |
Sindh | 1.81 | 1.42–2.31 | < 0.01 | 2.36 | 1.93–2.88 | < 0.01 | 1.91 | 1.58–2.29 | < 0.01 | 1.96 | 1.59–2.41 | < 0.01 |
Baluchistan | 2.08 | 1.36–3.18 | < 0.01 | 1.85 | 1.34–2.56 | < 0.01 | 1.22 | 0.92–1.62 | 0.16 | 0.93 | 0.68–1.29 | 0.68 |
Gilgit Baltistan | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.57 | 0.32–1.01 | 0.05 | – | – | |
Islamabad | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1.63 | 0.76–3.46 | 0.21 | 1.32 | 0.72–2.39 | 0.36 |
FATA | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.56 | 0.37–0.85 | < 0.01 | |||
Geographical classification | ||||||||||||
Rural | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
Urban | 0.63 | 0.52–0.76 | < 0.01 | 0.66 | 0.57–0.77 | < 0.01 | 0.74 | 0.64–0.85 | < 0.01 | 1.09 | 0.95–1.26 | 0.20 |
Respondents’ age | ||||||||||||
15–24 years | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
25–34 years | 0.89 | 0.72–1.24 | 0.35 | 0.95 | 0.79–1.14 | 0.58 | 0.92 | 0.79–1.08 | 0.34 | 0.86 | 0.73–1.02 | 0.09 |
35 years and above | 0.83 | 0.60–1.14 | 0.25 | 1.01 | 0.78–1.29 | 0.94 | 0.93 | 0.74–1.17 | 0.54 | 0.84 | 0.66–1.06 | 0.16 |
Respondents’ education status | ||||||||||||
Uneducated | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
Primary | 0.97 | 0.74–1.25 | 0.79 | 0.92 | 0.77–1.09 | 0.34 | 1.01 | 0.86–1.19 | 0.86 | 0.89 | 0.76–1.07 | 0.23 |
Secondary | 0.52 | 0.39–0.69 | < 0.01 | 0.78 | 0.64–0.95 | 0.01 | 0.83 | 0.69–0.98 | 0.02 | 0.82 | 0.69–0.97 | 0.02 |
Higher | 0.35 | 0.17–0.73 | < 0.01 | 0.58 | 0.43–0.79 | < 0.01 | 0.59 | 0.46–0.75 | < 0.01 | 0.66 | 0.53–0.83 | < 0.01 |
Husbands’ education status | ||||||||||||
Uneducated | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
Primary | 1.54 | 1.26–1.87 | < 0.01 | 1.14 | 0.96–1.37 | 0.14 | 1.29 | 1.10–1.53 | < 0.01 | 1.39 | 1.15–1.67 | < 0.01 |
Secondary | 1.64 | 1.36–1.97 | < 0.01 | 1.30 | 1.12–1.52 | < 0.01 | 1.46 | 1.27–1.68 | < 0.01 | 1.35 | 1.14–1.59 | 0.01 |
Higher | 2.12 | 1.42–3.17 | < 0.01 | 1.52 | 1.22–1.90 | < 0.01 | 1.77 | 1.46–2.13 | < 0.01 | 1.27 | 1.04–1.55 | 0.02 |
Respondents’ employment status | ||||||||||||
Unemployed | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
Employed | 1.07 | 0.88–1.30 | 0.47 | 1.04 | 0.91–1.20 | 0.54 | 1.23 | 1.08–1.39 | < 0.01 | 0.90 | 0.77–1.06 | 0.22 |
Husbands’ employment status | ||||||||||||
Unemployed | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
Employed | 0.76 | 0.46–1.27 | 0.29 | 0.92 | 0.65–1.29 | 0.62 | 0.72 | 0.47–1.09 | 0.12 | 0.69 | 0.46–1.02 | 0.06 |
Mass media exposure | ||||||||||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||||||||
Yes | 0.91 | 0.77–1.08 | 0.28 | – | – | – | 1.01 | 0.88–1.16 | 0.85 | 1.04 | 0.90–1.20 | 0.58 |
Respondents’ healthcare decision-making autonomy | ||||||||||||
No | 1 | 1 | ||||||||||
Yes | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.83 | 0.74–0.92 | < 0.01 | 0.92 | 0.82–1.04 | 0.17 |
Wealth quintile | ||||||||||||
Poorest | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
Poorer | 1.08 | 0.84–1.40 | 0.52 | 0.78 | 0.64–0.94 | 0.01 | 0.79 | 0.66–0.95 | 0.01 | 0.67 | 0.54–0.83 | < 0.01 |
Middle | 0.85 | 0.66–1.08 | 0.18 | 0.67 | 0.55–0.82 | < 0.01 | 0.63 | 0.52–0.77 | < 0.01 | 0.72 | 0.57–0.90 | < 0.01 |
Richer | 0.82 | 0.65–1.04 | 0.10 | 0.62 | 0.49–0.78 | < 0.01 | 0.45 | 0.36–0.55 | < 0.01 | 0.55 | 0.43–0.71 | < 0.01 |
Richest | 0.89 | 0.71–1.13 | 0.34 | 0.73 | 0.56–0.96 | 0.02 | 0.53 | 0.41–0.69 | < 0.01 | 0.47 | 0.35–0.62 | < 0.01 |
Reproductive health and fertility behaviors | ||||||||||||
Respondents’ age at first birth | ||||||||||||
< 20 years | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
20–34 years | 0.98 | 0.83–1.16 | 0.87 | 0.94 | 0.82–1.08 | 0.39 | 0.73 | 0.65–0.83 | < 0.01 | 0.82 | 0.72–0.95 | < 0.01 |
35–49 years | 0.99 | 0.38–2.60 | 0.98 | 0.30 | 0.11–0.83 | 0.02 | 0.86 | 0.37–1.99 | 0.72 | 0.83 | 0.39–1.76 | 0.62 |
Gravidity | ||||||||||||
6 and above | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
3–5 | 0.88 | 0.67–1.15 | 0.35 | 1.08 | 0.86–1.37 | 0.48 | 1.15 | 0.93–1.43 | 0.20 | 1.21 | 0.93–1.56 | 0.15 |
1–2 | 0.87 | 0.52–1.46 | 0.61 | 1.52 | 1.01–2.31 | 0.05 | 1.60 | 1.11–2.32 | 0.01 | 1.10 | 0.72–1.70 | 0.66 |
Parity | ||||||||||||
5 children and above | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
3–4 children | 0.73 | 0.54–0.97 | 0.03 | 0.64 | 0.48–0.86 | < 0.01 | 1.00 | 0.78–1.29 | 0.97 | 1.16 | 0.87–1.54 | 0.32 |
1–2 children | 0.46 | 0.28–0.75 | < 0.01 | 0.58 | 0.37–0.89 | 0.01 | 0.79 | 0.55–1.15 | 0.23 | 1.08 | 0.72–1.63 | 0.70 |
Number of living children | ||||||||||||
5 children and above | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
3–4 children | 1.37 | 0.98–1.91 | 0.06 | 1.53 | 1.10–2.13 | 0.01 | 1.23 | 0.93–1.64 | 0.15 | 0.91 | 0.65–1.26 | 0.58 |
1–2 children | 2.48 | 1.34–4.58 | < 0.01 | 1.43 | 0.84–2.44 | 0.19 | 1.23 | 0.78–1.94 | 0.36 | 1.11 | 0.66–1.88 | 0.69 |
None | 2.83 | 1.16–6.88 | 0.02 | 2.15 | 1.02–4.54 | 0.04 | 1.35 | 0.66–2.77 | 0.41 | 1.57 | 0.72–3.44 | 0.26 |
Ever terminated pregnancy | ||||||||||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||||||||
Yes | – | – | – | 1.10 | 0.96–1.27 | 0.16 | 1.29 | 1.15–1.44 | < 0.01 | 1.11 | 0.99–1.26 | 0.08 |
Visits for antenatal care | ||||||||||||
Less than 4 visits | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
At least 4 visits | 1.45 | 1.13–1.86 | < 0.01 | 1.00 | 0.86–1.16 | 0.97 | 0.85 | 0.75–0.97 | 0.02 | 0.99 | 0.87–1.13 | 0.94 |
Deliveries by skilled birth attendants | ||||||||||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
Yes | 0.84 | 0.67–1.04 | 0.11 | 0.91 | 0.79–1.04 | 0.18 | 1.08 | 0.96–1.22 | 0.22 | 0.93 | 0.80–1.08 | 0.35 |
Ideal family size | ||||||||||||
5 children and above | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
3–4 children | 1.52 | 1.10–2.09 | 0.01 | 0.98 | 0.84–1.13 | 0.74 | 0.69 | 0.61–0.80 | < 0.01 | 0.87 | 0.59–0.87 | 0.06 |
1–2 children | 1.55 | 1.13–2.14 | 0.01 | 0.74 | 0.60–0.92 | < 0.01 | 0.64 | 0.53–0.78 | < 0.01 | 0.72 | 0.74–1.01 | < 0.01 |
Desire for more children/Fertility intention | ||||||||||||
Wants more children | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
Wants no more | 1.28 | 1.08–1.52 | < 0.01 | 1.03 | 0.88–1.20 | 0.69 | 1.03 | 0.89–1.18 | 0.66 | 0.90 | 0.78–1.04 | 0.16 |
Current use of contraception | ||||||||||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
Yes | 0.84 | 0.67–1.05 | 0.13 | 1.04 | 0.91–1.19 | 0.59 | 1.06 | 0.95–1.19 | 0.29 | 0.90 | 0.81–1.04 | 0.17 |