Table 1 Literature matrix of 17 included articles

1

Prevalence, nature, severity and correlates of postpartum depressive symptoms in Vietnam

Fisher, J. R. W., M. M. Morrow, N. T. Nhu Ngoc, and L. T. Hoang Anh (2004) [24]

To examine depressive symptomatology in women after childbirth in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Mothers of infants aged ± six weeks attending well-baby clinics

A cross-sectional quantitative study

506

Hung Vuong Obstetrics and Gynaecology Hospital and the Maternal, Child Health and Family Planning Center of Ho Chi Minh City

EPDS

6 weeks

Difficulty swallowing

Heavy heart

Breathing difficulty

Heart palpitations

Body feels cold

Nausea

Headaches

Flatulence

Constipation/diarrhea

General worrying

Nighttime waking apart from infant care

Difficulty falling asleep

Severe fatigue

2

Domestic Moods: Maternal Mental Health in Northern Vietnam

Gammeltoft, Tine M. (2018) [25]

To develop the concept of domestic mood as an important concept for mental health research

Pregnant women

Part of a cohort study

30

Antenatal care facilities, Đông Anh district, Hanoi

EPDS. Cutting point/scale 30 points (10 items)

4 times: at enrolment (at a gestational age of less than 24 weeks); at a gestational age of 30–34 weeks; 24–48 h after delivery; and 4–12 weeks after delivery

Living under pressure

The psychic force of household tensions

The weight of kinship conflicts

3

Emotional violence and maternal mental health: a qualitative study among women in northern Vietnam

Trần Thơ Nhị, Nguyễn Thị Thúy Hạnh & Tine M. Gammeltoft (2018) [26]

To explore Vietnamese women’s experiences of emotional partner violence and their perceptions of the implications of such violence for their mental health

10 pregnant women and 10 recently postpartum mothers

Qualitative study

20

Dong Anh District, Hanoi

EPDS

Either during pregnancy or after birth

Key dimensions of emotional partner violence: being ignored; being denied support; and exposure to controlling behaviors. These experiences affected the women’s sense of well-being profoundly, causing sadness and distress

4

Postpartum Depressive Symptoms and Associated Factors in Married Women: A Cross-sectional Study in Danang City, Vietnam

Van Vo, Thang, Thi Kim Duong Hoa, and Tuyen Dinh Hoang. (2017) [8]

To (1) estimate the prevalence of PPD symptoms among married women in one Vietnam city (Danang), and (2) identify social and personal factors associated with postpartum depressive symptoms

Women who gave birth 4 weeks to 6 months prior to being interviewed

Cross-sectional study

600

Hai Chau District, Danang, Vietnam

EPDS (cutoff point of 12/13)

4-week to 6-months postnatal

Among women with postpartum depression symptoms, 37.9% had suicidal thoughts in the previous seven days (95% CI: 28.96–46.89)

5

Symptom Endorsement and Sociodemographic Correlates of Postnatal Distress in Three Low Income Countries

Nguyen, Amanda J., Emily E. Haroz, Tamar Mendelson, and Judith Bass. (2016) [9]

To 1) compare endorsement of specific symptoms by mothers meeting criteria for maternal distress in these three settings, and (2) evaluate the consistency of associations between maternal distress and recognized risk factors

5647 mothers in Ethiopia, India (Andhra Pradesh), and Vietnam participating in an ongoing cohort study (Young Lives)

Cross-sectional, secondary analysis

1855 Vietnamese mothers among 5647 participants

Ethiopia, India, and Vietnam

SRQ. Probable clinically relevant maternal distress was classified by the YL team using the Self-Reporting Questionnaire-20 Items (SRQ-20), consists of 20 yes/no questions (no = 0; yes = 1), score ranging from 0 to 20 with higher scores indicating greater severity. cutoff of 8 or higher

6–18 months postnatal

Feeling nervous, being easily tired, headaches, being tired all the time, being unhappy, and poor appetite, feeling worthless, feeling unable to go on, and being unable to play a useful part in life

6

Feelings of women who first-time deliver

Tran Thi Phuong Thao and Truong Thi Khanh Ha (2010) [27]

To explore the emotions of first-time mothers and factors that influence mothers’ emotions to make recommendations to help mothers and family members better understand the complex emotions of mothers in certain childcare and parenting situations

Mothers (20 to 38 years old) with children between 1.5 and 2 years old

A mix of qualitative and quantitative study, questionnaire survey, opinion poll, in-depth interview

Interview: 10 mothers; survey: 60 mothers

Hoan Kiem, Thanh Tri, and Thanh Xuan Districts, Hanoi

In-depth interview using open-ended questions. Percentage survey using self-designed questionnaire consisting of 24 questions, Likert scale from 1 to 4 (one question) and from 1 to 5 (some questions)

Over 1 year and 2 years postnatal

During the period from 3 to 9 months, when the baby's crying often makes the mothers "sad and worried" (20%); “sad and tired, never know when to let go of this phase” (43.3%). Qal: stuck, bored with raising children, frustrated with her husband and everyone, unable to hold back tears

When the husband does not know how to share: 13.3% of them "feel very sad". Qal: often angry, emotional, or thinking about it, even having a night of thinking and not being able to sleep, feeling sorry for being alone with the child, my husband rarely asks about mother and daughter

Sick child: 30% of young mothers feel "stressed out"

7

Postnatal depressive symptoms display marked similarities across continents

Wesselhoeft, Rikke, Frederikke Kjerulff Madsen, Mia Beck Lichtenstein, Christian Sibbersen, Rachel Manongi, Declare L. Mushi, Hanh Thi Thuy Nguyen, et al. (2020) [28]

To (1) examine and compare the factor structure of postnatal depressive symptoms measured by EPDS in postpartum women from Denmark, Vietnam and Tanzania; (2) test the fit of the EPDS 3-factor structure identified in a study by Chiu et al.; (3) to examine if country of origin or education level predict high total EPDS score and (4) investigate whether there are differences in expression (frequency and severity) of specific depressive symptoms based on country of origin or education level

Women who were part of one of the three pregnancy cohorts: Denmark- early pregnancy and up until 2.5 months postpartum; Vietnam and Tanzania: early pregnancy and up until gestational age 24 weeks in

A cross-sectional study

4516 (Vietnam: 1,278)

Denmark, Vietnam, and Tanzania

EPDS cut off point of 12 and above

40–90 days postpartum

High proportions for symptom in Vietnamese population: Self-blame (28.8%); worry (27.3%) scared (10.3%) overwhelmed (16.4%) difficult to sleep (12.2%)

The highest level of education (level 3) was associated with a significantly lower EPDS total score, when adjusting for country (p < 0.001). We also tested the association between education duration (length in years) and EPDS total score, which confirmed a negative correlation (coefficient = 0.015, SE = 0.005, p = 0.0025). EPDS score was associated with stunting (low length for age) (mean EPDS score 9.3 stunting, 7.6 no stunting) (t – 2.23, p = 0.03)

8

Associations of Psychosocial Factors with Maternal Confidence Among Japanese and Vietnamese Mothers

Goto, Aya, Quang Vinh Nguyen, Thi Tu Van Nguyen, Nghiem Minh Pham, Thi Mong Thuy Chung, Huu Phuc Trinh, Junko Yabe, Hitomi Sasaki, and Seiji Yasumura. (2010) [7]

To investigate the prevalence and associated sociodemographic, parenting, and psychological characteristics of low maternal confidence in child rearing among them

Mother that had children between 1-month and 3-month-old

Cross-sectional study

294 Vietnamese women

Tu Du Obstetrical and Gynecological Hospital, where?

GSE scale and a two-question case-finding instrument (Whooley 1997)

1–3 month postnatal

Feeling I am abusing my child (10%); don’t have time to interact with child in relaxed mood (9%)

9

Postpartum change in common mental disorders among rural Vietnamese women: incidence, recovery and risk and protective factors

Nguyen, Trang Thu, Thach Duc Tran, Tuan Tran, Buoi La, Hau Nguyen, and Jane Fisher (2015) [29]

To determine the incidence and rates of recovery from common mental disorders (CMD) among rural Vietnamese women and the risk and protective factors associated with these outcomes from the perinatal period to 15 months after giving birth

Mothers in the last 3 months of pregnancy or the first 4–6 weeks postpartum; follow up to 15 months later

A population-based prospective study

211

Rural and urban areas of Vietnam, including Ha Nam province

DSM-IV. assessed by psychiatrist administered Structured Clinical Interview for Disorders

1 year postnatal

More than two-thirds of women with CMD at baseline had recovered by the follow-up assessment. The probability (incidence) of a woman who was healthy at baseline having symptoms meeting diagnostic criteria for a CMD at follow-up (0.13, 95% CI 0.08–0.19) was significantly lower than the probability of a woman having a CMD at baseline and experiencing at least one CMD at follow-up (0.30, 95% CI 0.20–0.40). Overall, 70% (95% CI 59–80) of women who experienced a perinatal CMD recovered in the following year None received formal mental healthcare

10

The social contexts of depression during motherhood: A study of explanatory models in Vietnam

Niemi, Maria E., Torkel Falkenberg, Mai T. T. Nguyen, Minh T. N. Nguyen, Vikram Patel, and Elisabeth Faxelid. (2010) [30]

To elicit Illness Explanatory Models (EMs) of depression and postnatal depression from nine mothers and nine health workers

Nine mothers and nine health workers who meet mothers during the pregnancy/postpartum period

Qualitative

9 mothers and 9 health workers

A community health center in Ba Vi, a district in Ha Tay province of northern Vietnam

DSM. The semi-structured interview schedule was designed in accordance with the four main categories that consist of Kleinman's illness explanatory model framework (Kleinman, 1980)

Mothers with older children (adults or older than 1 year old)

In Vietnam, Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism have carried major impacts in creating a holistic thinking where clear distinctions between physical and psychological symptoms are not made (Phan and Silvoe, 1999). Phan and Silvoe (1999) have shown that the Cartesian mind/body dualistic fashion of thinking that underlies Western psychiatric nosology does thus not necessarily coincide with this holistic view. They think that they are useless and don't want to become a burden for others

Advice: seeking formal help, advice against medical help, others' involvement in help and self-help. Psychiatric treatment and care were seldom recommended. (Formal help: somatic medical help was most not advised to treat the depression itself, but to treat a physical illness or disease that was considered the underlying cause for the depression; Psychiatric treatment was the second most common advice given by over half of the health workers. Advice to seek formal help for depression itself, and not its causes, was rarely expressed by the mothers. However, seeking other forms of formal help, such as traditional medicine and fortune tellers, were advised by mothers to care for the depression itself, and not its possible causes.) (Self-help: simply cope with the problems on one's own, and in some cases advice to not bother others with one's own troubles, and even conceal the problems from others)

11

Common mental disorders among women, social circumstances and toddler growth in rural Vietnam: a population-based prospective study

J. Fisher, T. Tran, T. T. Nguyen, H. Nguyen and T. D. Tran (2015) [31]

To examine the effect of maternal common mental disorders (CMD) and social adversity in the post-partum year on toddler’s length-for-age index in a rural low-income setting

Baseline: Women in late pregnancy or 4–6 weeks post-partum

Followed up (15 months later): the women and their toddlers

A population-based prospective cohort study

211

6/116 communes in Ha Nam randomly selected

DSM. Psychiatrist-administered. Structured clinical interviews for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition Diagnoses

Baseline: Women in late pregnancy or 4–6 weeks post-partum

Followed up (15 months later): the women and their toddlers

Stunting prevalence among children in the first years of life in low- and middle-income settings. (LAZ <  − 2) was 15.6%

Maternal CMDs at follow up are related to diminished early childhood growth (LAZ)

(Regression coefficient =  − 0.15, 95% CI − 0.28 to − 0.05)

Maternal CMD at baseline were indirectly related to toddler LAZ via maternal CMD at follow-up (regression coefficient =  − 0.05, 95% CI − 0.11 to − 0.01)

12

Cross-cultural experiences of maternal depression: associations and contributing factors for Vietnamese, Turkish and Filipino immigrant women in Victoria, Australia

Rhonda Small, Judith, Jane Yelland (2003) [32]

To investigate in an Australian study of immigrant women conducted 6–9 months following childbirth (a) the associations of a range of demographic, obstetric, health and social context variables with maternal depression, and (b) women's views of contributing factors in their experiences of depression

318 Vietnamese, Turkish and Filipino women

Quantitative

318

Victoria, Australia

EPDS, Mental Health Sub-Scale (Cardona et al. 1995)

6–9 month postnatal

Isolation (including being homesick)-29%; lack of support and marital issues-25%; physical ill-health and exhaustion-23%; family problems-19%, and baby-related issues–17%

13

One foot wet and one foot dry: transition into motherhood among married adolescent women in rural Vietnam

Klingberg-Allvin M, Binh N, Johansson A, Berggren V. (2008) [33]

To explore married Vietnamese adolescents' perceptions and experiences related to transition into motherhood and their encounter with health care service

Women younger than 20

Qualitative

22 women, 10 were carried out with pregnant women and 12 with newly delivered mothers

Study participants were recruited from 3 of the 25 communes in a rural district. Women were selected from lists provided by the staff at the CHC in each commune

Open-ended qualitative interviews covering 3 main areas: (a) adolescent women’s experiences in relation to the process of childbearing and transition to motherhood, (b) their attitude toward spacing and usage of contraception, and (c) their perceptions of the encounter with health care providers

Either pregnant or postnatal

(1) Ambivalence (both feelings of happiness and pride to be able to conceive and feelings of worry and fear of complications and a lack of confidence to cope with the processes of pregnancy and motherhood) in becoming a young mother; (2) Being in the hands of others; (3) Being ignored and patronized by the health care providers

14

Postnatal depression and social supports in Vietnamese, Arabic and Anglo-Celtic mothers

Stuchbery, M., Matthey, S. & Barnett, B. (1998) [34]

To examine which deficits in components of women’s social support network are associated with postnatal depression

Anglo-Celtic, Vietnamese, and Arabic women

Qualitative

126 and 113 respectively for Vietnamese, 125 and 98 for Arabic and 128 and 105 for Anglo-Celtic mothers

Antenatal clinics at four public hospitals in southwestern Sydney, Australia

EPDS

6 weeks postpartum

Poor quality of the relationship with her partner and wanting more practical support from her partner were associated with higher scores on the EPDS

15

Perceptions and experiences of perinatal mental disorders in rural, predominantly ethnic minority communities in northern Vietnam

Daniel Abrams, Liem T. Nguyen, Jill Murphy, Younji (Angie) Lee, Nhu K. Tran & David Wiljer (2016) [35]

To investigate knowledge/experiences and perceptions of perinatal mental disorders (PMDs) and their treatments at the community level in a rural, predominantly ethnic minority region of northern Vietnam

Primary health workers (PHWs) working at local community health centers, and pregnant or postpartum women enrolled in a program for maternal and infant health

Qualitative semi-structured interviews

14 perinatal women and 12 PHWs

Four communities located within the Dinh Hoa district of Thai Nguyen province

Two vignette scenarios, one based on DSM-IV

Either pregnant or women in their first-year postpartum

- Wandering around outside’, ‘attacking someone’, and ‘speaking without meaning’

- Changes in sleep and appetite

- Mothers, however, were more likely than PHWs to refer to thoughts or emotions when speaking about mental health. The most commonly mentioned symptoms in this category related to worry, anxiety, or stress

PHWs’ experience with mental health patients of any kind was reported to be mostly limited to the long-term management of patients with psychosis or epilepsy, and very few reported diagnosing a new mental health patient within the past year

16

The clinical symptoms of postpartum depression

Dinh VH, Pham NT. (2022 [36]

To study the clinical features of postpartum depression

Postpartum depression patients treated at the Department of Psychiatry

A cross-sectional descriptive retrospective

31

Department of Psychiatry, 103 Military Hospital

Beck Depression Inventory

Symptoms of decreased mood, loss of interest and enjoyment, insomnia accounted for 100%. Fatigue, pessimistic patients accounted for 93.55%. 29.04% of patients have delusions of self-incrimination, 80.65% of patients having suicidal ideation

17

Prevalence of postpartum depression and related factors at National Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynaecology

Ky, N.V.; Bac N.Q. (2021) [37]

To investigate prevalence, symptoms and risk factors of postpartum depression among women delivering at National Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynaecology

women delivering at National Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynaecology

A cross-sectional descriptive retrospective

National Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynaecology

feeling very bored/depressed, sad (83.3%), no longer interested in meeting or meeting with anyone (40.5%), feeling tired all the time (76.2%). Common symptoms of TCSS are: decreased attention span (71.4%), decreased self-esteem and confidence (52.4%), idea of guilt, unworthiness (80.9%), bleak future outlook, pessimism (73.8%), sleep disorder (100%), eating disorder (97.6%), in particular, there was one case of suicidal ideation and behavior (2, 38%)