Table 3 Multivariable analysis of the determinants of MHS utilisation in Papua New Guinea

Predisposing factors

 Age

  15–19

-

Ref

-

  20–34

-

1.181 (0.833–1.675)

-

  35–49

-

1.374 (0.939–2.011)

-

 Working

  Not working

Ref

Ref

Ref

  Working

1.268*** (1.112–1.445)

1.185* (1.021–1.374)

0.952 (0.829–1.092)

 Education

  No education

Ref

Ref

Ref

  Primary

1.880*** (1.616–2.186)

2.190*** (1.869–2.567)

1.221* (1.025–1.454)

  Secondary

2.370*** (1.933–2.905)

3.964*** (3.142–5.002)

1.351** (1.084–1.683)

  Higher

1.211 (0.845–1.737)

12.363*** (4.601–33.224)

1.602* (1.115–2.300)

 Religion

  No religion

Ref

Ref

Ref

  Christianity

1.824 (0.765–4.354)

0.840 (0.376–1.874)

4.025* (1.020–15.876)

  Non-Christianity

1.115 (0.344–3.613)

0.472 (0.144–1.552)

0.918 (0.132–6.405)

Enabling factors

 Media exposure

  No

Ref

Ref

Ref

  Yes

1.473*** (1.280–1.695)

1.289*** (1.109–1.499)

1.317*** (1.131–1.533)

 Getting money needed for treatment

  Big problem

Ref

Ref

Ref

  Not a big problem

1.169* (1.005–1.359)

1.089 (0.918–1.292)

0.920 (0.786–1.076)

 Distance to health facility

  Big problem

Ref

Ref

Ref

  Not a big problem

1.580*** (1.361–1.835)

1.655*** (1.402–1.954)

1.242** (1.060–1.455)

 Decision maker on healthcare

  Not alone

Ref

Ref

  Alone

1.160* (1.020–1.320)

1.091 (0.944–1.262)

-

 Household wealth

  Poorest

Ref

Ref

Ref

  Poorer

1.429*** (1.190–1.716)

1.089 (0.902–1.315)

1.135 (0.916–1.407)

  Middle

1.542*** (1.277–1.860)

1.848*** (1.525–2.240)

1.444*** (1.167–1.787)

  Richer

1.375** (1.120–1.689)

2.390*** (1.925–2.969)

1.212 (0.962–1.526)

  Richest

1.455**(1.139–1.859)

6.947*** (5.066–9.527)

1.283 (0.988–1.667)

 Health insurance

  No

Ref

Ref

Ref

  Yes

1.615* (1.071–2.435)

1.506 (0.736–3.082)

0.908 (0.633–1.304)

 Region

  Southern region

Ref

Ref

Ref

  Highlands region

0.782** (0.660–0.926)

1.036 (0.856–1.253)

0.602*** (0.504–0.720)

  Momase region

0.514*** (0.432–0.611)

0.505*** (0.415–0.614)

0.821* (0.687–0.981)

  Islands region

1.254* (1.012–1.555)

1.414** (1.106–1.808)

1.046 (0.849–1.289)

 Residence

  Rural

Ref

Ref

Ref

  Urban

1.120 (0.898–1.396)

1.650** (1.214–2.242)

1.249* (1.011–1.543)

Need factors

 Parity

  1

Ref

Ref

Ref

  2

0.803* (0.668–0.964)

0.819 (0.661–1.015)

0.818* (0.675–0.992)

  ≥ 3

0.677*** (0.582–0.788)

0.494*** (0.408–0.597)

0.911 (0.779–1.066)

 Pregnancy terminations

  No

Ref

Ref

Ref

  Yes

1.193 (0.912–1.560)

1.134 (0.829–1.551)

1.135 (0.868–1.485)