Table 3 Generalised linear model with binomial distribution assumption and log link for miscarriage in the first (≤12 weeks) and the second & above (> 12 weeks) trimesters among women in India, NFHS, 2019–21

Age Group

<20 years

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

20–29 years

3.47*** [2.69,4.48]

0.98 [0.71,1.36]

5.35*** [2.75,10.38]

≥30 years

9.52*** [7.34,12.34]

1.15 [0.83,1.61]

19.24*** [9.84,37.62]

Marital status

Currently married

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

Not in union

0.91 [0.73,1.12]

1.08 [0.84,1.38]

0.92 [0.58,1.47]

Religion

Muslim

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

Hindu

1.25*** [1.16,1.35]

1.12* [1.02,1.22]

1.18 [0.99,1.41]

Others

1.28*** [1.14,1.44]

1.30*** [1.13,1.49]

0.97 [0.74,1.28]

Place of residence

Rural

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

Urban

1.20*** [1.13,1.28]

1.10* [1.02,1.19]

1.14 [0.98,1.33]

Caste

Scheduled Tribes (STs)

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

Scheduled Castes (SCs)

1.37*** [1.25,1.50]

1.26*** [1.13,1.41]

1.24* [1.01,1.51]

Other Backward Class (OBC)

1.44*** [1.32,1.57]

1.38*** [1.24,1.53]

1.14 [0.94,1.38]

Others

1.54*** [1.40,1.69]

1.28*** [1.15,1.44]

1.38** [1.12,1.69]

Education in years

No education

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

>10 years

1.06 [0.99,1.14]

1.03 [0.94,1.12]

0.99 [0.85,1.15]

≤10 years

0.84*** [0.77,0.91]

0.95 [0.85,1.06]

0.73** [0.60,0.90]

Wealth Index

Poorest

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

Poorer

1.22*** [1.13,1.32]

1.10* [1.00,1.21]

1.06 [0.90,1.26]

Middle

1.32*** [1.22,1.44]

1.15** [1.04,1.27]

1.16 [0.96,1.39]

Richer

1.30*** [1.19,1.43]

1.12 [1.00,1.25]

1.01 [0.82,1.25]

Richest

1.31*** [1.18,1.46]

1.14* [1.00,1.30]

0.82 [0.63,1.07]

Desire of children

Sterilized/Infecund

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

Yes

2.81*** [2.58,3.07]

5.70*** [5.12,6.34]

2.15*** [1.78,2.60]

Undecided or no more

1.59*** [1.47,1.73]

2.15*** [1.95,2.38]

1.04 [0.86,1.25]

Mass media exposure

Low

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

Moderate

1.11*** [1.05,1.18]

1.01 [0.94,1.09]

1.18* [1.01,1.36]

High

1.05 [0.96,1.15]

1.01 [0.91,1.12]

0.99 [0.80,1.24]

Age at Marriage

≥25 years

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

<18 years

2.66*** [2.40,2.94]

1.18* [1.04,1.33]

3.52*** [2.77,4.46]

18–24 years

1.76*** [1.61,1.93]

1.1 [0.99,1.23]

1.95*** [1.57,2.43]

Contraceptive Demand

Unmet need

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

Met need

1.27*** [1.18,1.37]

0.87** [0.79,0.96]

1.41*** [1.16,1.70]

No demand

1.46*** [1.34,1.58]

0.53*** [0.47,0.58]

2.14*** [1.75,2.61]

Number of living children

No children

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

1–3 child

0.56*** [0.46,0.68]

0.76* [0.58,0.99]

0.39*** [0.28,0.56]

4 and above children

0.34*** [0.28,0.42]

0.68** [0.51,0.90]

0.19*** [0.12,0.28]

Sex of last child

Male

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

Female

0.95* [0.90,1.00]

1.06 [1.00,1.12]

1.05 [0.94,1.18]

Region

East

Ref.

Ref.

Ref.

West

0.63*** [0.56,0.70]

0.70*** [0.61,0.80]

0.76* [0.59,0.98]

North

0.94 [0.87,1.02]

0.96 [0.87,1.06]

1.12 [0.93,1.36]

South

0.55*** [0.50,0.61]

0.58*** [0.51,0.66]

0.68** [0.53,0.86]

Central

0.96 [0.90,1.03]

1 [0.91,1.09]

1.02 [0.86,1.21]

North east

0.88** [0.80,0.97]

0.69*** [0.61,0.77]

0.95 [0.76,1.19]